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Role: Messenger; Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Ephesus? Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Philemon Reference: Philemon 10; Col. 4:9 Original Text: Παρακαλῶ σε περὶ τοῦ ἐμοῦ τέκνου, ὃν ἐγέννησα ἐν τοῖς δεσμοῖς, Ὀνήσιμον, όν ποτέ σοι ἄχρηστον νυνὶ δὲ [καὶ] σοὶ καὶ ἐμοὶ εὔχρηστον, ὃν ἀνέπεμψά σοι, αὐτόν, τοῦτ’ ἔστιν τὰ ἐμὰ σπλάγχνα·  ὃν ἐγὼ ἐβουλόμην πρὸς ἐμαυτὸν κατέχειν, ἵνα ὑπὲρ σοῦ μοι διακονῇ ἐν τοῖς δεσμοῖς τοῦ εὐαγγελίου, χωρὶς δὲ τῆς σῆς γνώμης οὐδὲν ἠθέλησα ποιῆσαι, ἵνα μὴ ὡς κατὰ ἀνάγκην τὸ ἀγαθόν σου ᾖ ἀλλὰ κατὰ ἑκούσιον. (NA28 Philem. 10-16) σὺν Ὀνησίμῳ τῷ πιστῷ καὶ ἀγαπητῷ ἀδελφῷ, ὅς ἐστιν ἐξ ὑμῶν· πάντα ὑμῖν γνωρίσουσιν τὰ ὧδε. (NA28 Col. 4:9) English Translation: I am appealing to you for my child, Onesimus, whose father I have become during my imprisonment. Formerly he was useless to you, but now he is indeed useful both to you and to me. I am sending him, that is, my own heart, back to you. I wanted to keep him with me, so that he might be of service to me in your place during my imprisonment for the gospel;  but I preferred to do nothing without your consent, in order that your good deed might be voluntary and not something forced. Perhaps this is the reason he was separated from you for a while, so that you might have him back forever, no longer as a slave but more than a slave, a beloved brother—especially to me but how much more to you, both in the flesh and in the Lord. (Phlm. 10-16) He [Tychicus] is coming with Onesimus, the faithful and beloved brother, who is one of you. They will tell you about everything here. (Col. 4:9) Commentary: Onesimus was an enslaved man who appears in two Pauline epistles and worked as a messenger. In Colossians 4 he is identified as a companion of Tychicus in his journey to Colossae. Onesimus is primarily associated with the Letter to Philemon, however, where he is identified as a self-emancipated (“runaway”) enslaved worker who had fled from his enslaver Philemon and sought out the imprisoned Paul in Ephesus (Phlm. 8-16). Traditional scholarship argues that after he had left Philemon’s household Onesimus had undergone a conversion. In the diplomatically styled Letter to Philemon Paul advocated on Onesimus’s behalf to Philemon, his enslaver. Paul requests that Philemon receive Onesimus back into his household as a “beloved brother” (Phlm. 16). The language of siblingship may be metaphorical and religious but it might also refer to the very real situations in which homeborn enslaved workers and the head of household (paterfamilias) were biological half-siblings. The language of Paul’s request plays on the common ancient Roman conception that enslaved workers were living tools caught between the will of enslavers (Harrill, p.16). Onesimus’s name, which means “useful,” and his description in the letter may also evoke the specter of sexual violation and exploitation. Joseph Marchal has tentatively suggested that Onesimus may have been sexually exploited by Paul himself as well as others. Elsewhere in the Pauline corpus, remarks Marchal, the language of utility deployed in Phlm. 11 has clear sexual connotations (e.g. Rom 1:26–27). The request for manumission, moreover, did not release Onesimus from any of his obligations as formerly enslaved workers continued to be sexually exploitable after manumission (Seneca, Contr. 4 Praef. 10). Onesimus’s role in Colossians positions him as a messenger. A lengthy subscription to Colossians found in several manuscripts (K, L)  reads:  “To the Colossians, written from Rome (and delivered) through Tychicus and Onesimus (ἐγράφη ἀπὸ Ῥώμης διὰ Τυχίκου καὶ Ὀνησίμου).”  Similar claims have been made for his role in the delivery of Philemon itself. Building upon earlier scholarship and based on the rhetorical form of Philemon as a ‘letter of recommendation,’ Peter Head argues that Onesimus was also the messenger.. He further posits that Onesimus would have acted as an interpreter of sorts, fleshing out and resolving any ambiguities in the written communication. As Paul was imprisoned at the time of writing Philemon it is possible, as Roth has discussed, that Onesimus provided material support to Paul during his confinement much as Epaphroditus did on a different occasion (Phil. 2:25–30). That Paul does not seem to have come to an agreement with Philemon about Onesimus’s role suggests that if this took place then it was not as part of a formal arrangement. Perhaps an extended absence away from Philemon without prior agreement forms the background to the letter and Paul’s request. In either case it is likely that Onesimus’ role included rendering a wide range of support services for Paul. Onesimus was likely part of Paul’s “survival strategy” while he was incarcerated (Meggitt). Even if Onesimus was not explicitly identified as enslaved in Philemon, his name is suggestive of servile origins. “Usefulness” was one of the chief characteristics valued in enslaved workers in this period (Marchal). It was one of the ten most frequently used names for enslaved people in the city of Rome and one of the three most frequently attested Greek names for enslaved people (Solin 1996). The name is used of enslaved and formerly enslaved men 242 times in urban inscriptions (e.g. CIL 6.10395; CIL 15 4973; CIL 15.5398a; of a priest of Cybele CIL 6.496). There is some suggestion that Onesimus was subsequently manumitted and became the bishop of Ephesus mention in Ign., Eph. 1-2 and 6. Later tradition elevates all of the individuals named in Philemon to the rank of bishops of various communities but identifies a different seat for Onesimus: “(Bishop) of Laodicea in Phrygia, Archippus. Of Colossae, Philemon. Of Beroea in Macedonia, Onesimus, once the servant of Philemon” (Const. Ap. 7. 46. 12f: τῆς δὲ ἐν Φρυγίᾳ Λαοδικείας [ἐπίσκοπος] Ἄρχιππος, Κολασσαέων δὲ Φιλήμων· Βεροίας δὲ τῆς κατὰ Μακεδονίαν Ὀνήσιμος ὁ Φιλήμονος) Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Messenger; New Testament; Paul Related Entries: Tychicus; Onesimus (Ign. Eph. 1-2 and 6) Bibliography: Charles, Ronald. The Silencing of Slaves in Early Jewish and Christian Texts. London: Routledge, 2020. Harrill, J. Albert, Slaves in the New Testament: Literary, Social, and Moral Dimensions. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006. Head, Peter M. “Onesimus the Letter Carrier and the Initial Reception of Paul’s Letter to Philemon.” JTS 71.2 (2020): 628–56. Johnson, Matthew V., James A. Noel, and Demetrius K. Williams, ed. Onesimus Our Brother: Reading Religion, Race, and Culture in Philemon. Paul in Critical Contexts. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2012. Marchal, Joseph A. “The Usefulness of an Onesimus: The Sexual Use of Slaves and Paul’s Letter to Philemon.” JBL 130.4 (2011): 749-770. Meggitt, Justin. Paul, Poverty, and Survival. Studies of the New Testament and Its World. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1998. Osiek, Carolyn. Philippians, Philemon. ANTC. Nashville: Abingdon, 2000. Roth, Ulrike. “Paul, Philemon, and Onesimus: A Christian Design for Mastery.” ZNW 105.1 (2014): 102-130. Solin, H. “Griechische und römische Sklavennamen. Eine vergleichende Untersuchung.” Pages 307-30 in Fünfzig Jahre Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei an der Mainzer Akademie, 1950-2000. Miscellanea zum Jubilaeum. Stuttgart: Steiner, 2001. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Onesimus (Philemon).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR

Role: Messenger Gender: Male Date: early-second century CE Place: Ephesus Language: Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians Reference: Ign. Eph. 1–2, 6 Original Text: ἐπεὶ οὖν τὴν πολυπληθίαν ὑμῶν ἐν ὀνόματι θεοῦ ἀπείληφα ἐν Ὀνησίμῳ, τῷ ἐν ἀγάπῃ ἀδιηγήτῳ, ὑμῶν δὲ ἐν σαρκὶ ἐπισκόπῳ, ὃν εὔχομαι κατὰ Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν ὑμᾶς ἀγαπᾶν καὶ πάντας ὑμᾶς αὐτῷ ἐν ὁμοιότητι εἶναι. (Ign. Eph. 1.3) ὡς καὶ αὐτὸν ὁ πατὴρ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ ἀναψύξαι ἅμα Ὀνησίμῳ καὶ Βούρρῳ καὶ Εὔπλῳ καὶ Φρόντωνι, δι᾿ ὧν πάντας ὑμᾶς κατὰ ἀγάπην εἶδον. (Ign. Eph. 2) αὐτὸς μὲν οὖν Ὀνήσιμος ὑπερεπαινεῖ ὑμῶν τὴν ἐν θεῷ εὐταξίαν, ὅτι πάντες κατὰ ἀλήθειαν ζῆτε καὶ ὅτι ἐν ὑμῖν οὐδεμία αἵρεσις κατοικεῖ· (Ign. Eph. 6.2) English Translation: Since, then, I have received your entire congregation in the name of God through Onesimus, who abides in a love that defies description and serves as your bishop in the flesh—and I ask by Jesus Christ that you love him, and that all of you be like him. (Ign. Eph. 1.3) So may the Father of Jesus Christ refresh him, along with Onesimus, Burrhus, Euplus, and Fronto, those through whom I lovingly saw all of you. (Ignatius, Eph. 2) Thus Onesimus himself praises you highly for being so well ordered in God, because all of you live according to the truth and no heresy resides among you. (Ign. Eph. 6.2) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library 24; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 150–1. Commentary: Onesimus was the bishop (overseer or ἐπίσκοπος) of the Christian community in Ephesus around the turn of the first century CE. According to Ignatius’s Letter to the Ephesians he visited Ignatius and Ignatius saw in Onesimus the entirety of the community. The notion that letter carriers or messengers embody the person and values of those whom they represent is common in Greco-Roman letters. The role of pseudepigraphical representative has been identified by some as a characteristic particularly associated with servile messengers (Londa). The same trope reappears throughout Ignatius’s letters. As Schodel has put it, Onesimus himself is received like a letter (Ign. Eph. 1.3) A number of scholars have suggested that bishop Onesimus was the enslaved Onesimus who formed the subject of Paul’s Letter to Philemon and who carried the Letter to the Colossians. This view, espoused since Ronald Knox, is focussed on the role that Onesimus may have played in collecting and assembling the earliest collections of Paul’s letters. If Onesimus played a role in this project, argue Goodspeed and Harrison, we can understand why some letter collections place Ephesians at the head of the collection. There is, however, no firm evidence in which to ground this hypothesis. It is unclear if Onesimus might be described as a literate worker and messenger rather than simply as someone who visited Ignatius during his confinement. Regardless of the connection to the Letter to Philemon, the name Onesimus name is highly suggestive of servile origins and rarely used of freeborn individuals. The name means “useful” and utility was one of the chief characteristics valued in enslaved workers in this period. Onesimus was one of the ten most frequently used names for enslaved people in the city of Rome and one of the three most frequently attested Greek names for enslaved people (Solin 2001). The term is found 242 times in urban inscriptions (e.g. CIL 6.10395; CIL 15 4973; CIL 15.5398a; of a priest of Cybele CIL 6.496). Schoedel identifies some examples where Onesimus refers to freeborn individuals (e.g. Livy 44.16) That Onesimus is identified as a bishop and a leader in the community in Ephesus does not automatically mean that he was freeborn. As demonstrated by Katherine Shaner, it was common for enslaved and formerly enslaved people to rise to positions of cultic prominence in the city of Ephesus. Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Ignatius; Literate Worker; Messenger Bibliography: Goodspeed, Edgar J. The Meaning of Ephesians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. Harrison, P. N. “Onesimus and Philemon.” ATR 32 (1950): 288–94. Head, Peter.  “Onesimus the Letter Carrier and the Initial Reception of Paul’s Letter to Philemon.” JTS 71.2 (2020): 628–656. Knox, John. Philemon Among the Letters of Paul, A New View of its Place and Importance. New York: Abingdon, 1959. Londa, Chris. “Letters.” In Writing, Enslavement, and Powerin the Roman Mediterranean. Edited by Jeremiah Coogan, Joseph Howley, Candida Moss. Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming. Roth, Ulrike. “Paul, Philemon, and Onesimus: A Christian Design for Mastery.” ZNW 105.1 (2014): 102-130. Schoedel, William R. Ignatius of Antioch: A Commentary on the Letters of Ignatius of Antioch. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1985. Shaner, Katherine A. Enslaved Leadership in Early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. Solin, H. “Griechische und römische Sklavennamen. Eine vergleichende Untersuchung.” Pages 307-30 in Fünfzig Jahre Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei an der Mainzer Akademie, 1950-2000. Miscellanea zum Jubilaeum. Edited by Heinz Bellen and Heinz Heinen. Stuttgart: Steiner, 2001. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Onesimus (Ign. Eph.)” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR

Role: Interpreter; Secretary Gender: Male Date: late-first century CE-130 CE Place: Hierapolis Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Sayings; Commentary; Exposition Title of Work: Papias, Exposition of Dominical Oracles Reference: Eusebius, HE 3.39 = Papias, Frag. 3 Original Text: καὶ τοῦθ᾿ ὁ πρεσβύτερος ἔλεγεν· Μάρκος μὲν ἑρμηνευτὴς Πέτρου γενόμενος, ὅσα ἐμνημόνευσεν, ἀκριβῶς ἔγραψεν, οὐ μέντοι τάξει, τὰ ὑπὸ τοῦ κυρίου2 ἢ λεχθέντα ἢ πραχθέντα· οὔτε γὰρ ἤκουσεν τοῦ κυρίου οὔτε παρηκολούθησεν αὐτῷ, ὕστερον δέ, ὡς ἔφην, Πέτρῳ, ὃς πρὸς τὰς χρείας ἐποιεῖτο τὰς διδασκαλίας, ἀλλ᾿ οὐχ ὥσπερ σύνταξιν τῶν κυριακῶν ποιούμενος λογίων, ὥστε οὐδὲν ἥμαρτεν Μάρκος, οὕτως ἔνια γράψας ὡς ἀπεμνημόνευσεν· ἑνὸς γὰρ ἐποιήσατο πρόνοιαν, τοῦ μηδὲν ὧν ἤκουσεν παραλιπεῖν ἢ ψεύσασθαί τι ἐν αὐτοῖς. (Papias, Frag. 3) English Translation: And this is what the elder used to say, ‘When Mark was the interpreter [Or: translator] of Peter, he wrote down accurately everything that he recalled of the Lord’s words and deeds—but not in order. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied him; but later, as I indicated, he accompanied Peter, who used to adapt his teachings for the needs at hand, not arranging, as it were, an orderly composition of the Lord’s sayings. And so Mark did nothing wrong by writing some of the matters as he remembered them. For he was intent on just one purpose: to leave out nothing that he heard or to include any falsehood among them.’ (Papias, Frag. 3) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003). Commentary: Mark is identified by Papias as the interpreter (ἑρμηνευτὴς) of the Apostle Peter and, thus, as the servile author of the Gospel of Mark. The word ἑρμηνευτὴς might equally be understood as “translator.” Mark may thus have acted as an oral interpreter who translated Aramaic into Greek just as translators function in the Pauline epistles (1 Cor 12:10; 14:23). Mark may have expounded the words of Peter and, thus, interpreted them for a wider community. Or Mark may have acted as a literary translator who set the written words of Peter into Greek. If Mark is understood here as Peter’s secretary, then his role would not have been seen by ancient audiences as that of an equal. Translators played a variety of roles in antiquity, particularly in military contexts but they were equally important for legal affairs. Many of those who performed this work in antiquity were servile figures who performed relatively functional translations (Mairs). While the documentary record uses the title of interpreter to refer to high-status experts, some of these official translators were in fact illiterate (See Apollonos in P. Cair. Zen. I 59065, P. Ryl. IV 563, PSI IV 409). A great deal of uncredited translational work, thus, was performed by servile figures like Mark who worked under the aegis of a named translator. Gehrman argues that, in general, interpreters “were freedmen or slaves, and the language which they interpreted, especially into Greek or Latin, was their own vernacular” (17-18). It seems likely that Papias presents Mark as a servile figure whose exceptional memory and fidelity to Peter led him to preserve Peter’s words accurately (Moss). In terms of his dual role, we might compare him to Papisi, the interpreter and secretary who inscribed O. Berenike II.121 (ca. 113-117 CE). It is unclear if the Mark mentioned by Papias as the inscriber of the Gospel of Mark should be identified with the John Mark of Acts (12:12, 25; 15:37, 39), the Mark of 1 Peter (5:13), or some potential combination of both. 1 Peter appears to build upon emerging traditions about the relationship between Peter and Mark and is also represented in Papias. Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Dictation; Interpreter; Literate Worker; Mark; Papias; Peter; Rome Bibliography: Gehman, Henry Snyder. The Interpreters of Foreign Languages Among the Ancients: A Study Based on Greek and Latin Sources (Lancaster: Intelligentsia, 1914). Mairs, Rachel. “Hermēneis in the Documentary Record from Hellenistic and Roman Egypt: Interpreters, Translators and Mediators in Bilingual Society.” Journal of Ancient History 7:2 (2019) 1-53 Moss, Candida R.  “Fashioning Mark: Early Christian Discussions about the Scribe and Status of the Second Gospel.” New Testament Studies 67:2 (2021): 181-204. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Mark (Papias Frag. 3.” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Copyist Gender: Male Date: mid-late second century CE Place: Corinth Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Martyrdom Account; Letter Title of Work: Martyrdom of Polycarp Reference:  MPol 22 Original Text: ταῦτα μετεγράψατο μὲν Γάϊος ἐκ τῶν Εἰρηναίου, μαθητοῦ τοῦ Πολυκάρπου, ὃς καὶ συνεπολιτεύσατο τῷ Εἰρηναίῳ. ἐγὼ δὲ Σωκρᾴτης ἐν Κορίνθῳ ἐκ τῶν Γαΐου ἀντιγράφων ἔγραψα. ἡ χάρις μετὰ πάντων. (MPol 22.2) ἐκ τούτων οὖν, ὡς προλέλεκται, τῶν τοῦ Εἰρηναίου συγγραμμάτων Γάϊος μετεγράψατο, ἐκ δὲ τῶν Γαΐου ἀντιγράφων Ἰσοκράτης ἐν Κορίνθῳ. ἐγὼ δὲ πάλιν Πιόνιος ἐκ τῶν Ἰσοκράτους ἀντιγράφων ἔγραψα κατὰ ἀποκάλυψιν τοῦ ἁγίου Πολυκάρπου ζητήσας αὐτά, συναγαγὼν αὐτὰ ἤδη σχεδὸν ἐκ τοῦ χρόνου κεκμηκότα, ἵνα κἀμὲ συναγάγῃ ὁ κύριος Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς μετὰ τῶν ἐκλεκτῶν αὐτοῦ εἰς τὴν ἐπουράνιον αὐτοῦ βασιλείαν· (MPol Epilogue from the Moscow Codex) English Translation: Gaius transcribed these things from the papers of Irenaeus, a disciple of Polycarp; he also lived in the same city as Irenaeus. And I, Socrates, have written these things in Corinth from the copies made by Gaius. May grace be with everyone.  (MPol 22.2) And so, as was indicated before, Gaius made a transcription from the writings of Irenaeus, as Isocrates did, in Corinth, from the copies of Gaius And then I, Pionius, wrote a copy from those of Isocrates, in accordance with a revelation of the holy Polycarp, after seeking out these writings and gathering them together when they were nearly worn out by age, so that the Lord Jesus Christ may gather me together with his chosen ones into his heavenly kingdom. (MPol 22 Moscow Codex) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003). Commentary: Isocrates, or Socrates as he is sometimes listed in translations, copied the Martyrdom of Polycarp in Corinth from the edition made by Gaius. His existence and notice in the codicil to the account helps cement the literary lineage of the edition set before the reader. That Isocrates is identified as copying the text in Corinth suggests that the instructions of Evaristus–that the letter be copied and sent on to other churches–was fulfilled. Other than his socio-literary ties to Gaius and Pionius, nothing else is known of this Isocrates. That Pionius recopied Isocrates’s text only because it was worn out from age affords us a rare glimpse into the materiality of ancient book production and conservation. Curation often involved recopying. The Greek name Isocrates evokes the famous classical Greek philosophers Socrates and Isocrates. It is used of enslaved or formerly enslaved workers in a large number inscriptions (e.g. CIL 6.16314; CIL 6.10064; CIL 6.20268). Nevertheless, it is by no means certain that Isocrates was enslaved or formerly enslaved, only that he performed work normally associated with those of servile status. Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Copyist; Literate Worker; Martyrdom Account; Polycarp Related Entries: Evaristus; Gaius How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Isocrates (MPol 20).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Copyist Gender: Male Date: mid-late second century CE Place: Smyrna Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Martyrdom Account; Letter Title of Work: Martyrdom of Polycarp Reference:  MPol 22 Original Text: ταῦτα μετεγράψατο μὲν Γάϊος ἐκ τῶν Εἰρηναίου, μαθητοῦ τοῦ Πολυκάρπου, ὃς καὶ συνεπολιτεύσατο τῷ Εἰρηναίῳ. ἐγὼ δὲ Σωκρᾴτης ἐν Κορίνθῳ ἐκ τῶν Γαΐου ἀντιγράφων ἔγραψα. ἡ χάρις μετὰ πάντων. (MPol 22.2) ἐκ τούτων οὖν, ὡς προλέλεκται, τῶν τοῦ Εἰρηναίου συγγραμμάτων Γάϊος μετεγράψατο, ἐκ δὲ τῶν Γαΐου ἀντιγράφων Ἰσοκράτης ἐν Κορίνθῳ. ἐγὼ δὲ πάλιν Πιόνιος ἐκ τῶν Ἰσοκράτους ἀντιγράφων ἔγραψα κατὰ ἀποκάλυψιν τοῦ ἁγίου Πολυκάρπου ζητήσας αὐτά, συναγαγὼν αὐτὰ ἤδη σχεδὸν ἐκ τοῦ χρόνου κεκμηκότα, ἵνα κἀμὲ συναγάγῃ ὁ κύριος Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς μετὰ τῶν ἐκλεκτῶν αὐτοῦ εἰς τὴν ἐπουράνιον αὐτοῦ βασιλείαν· (MPol Epilogue from the Moscow Codex) English Translation: Gaius transcribed these things from the papers of Irenaeus, a disciple of Polycarp; he also lived in the same city as Irenaeus. And I, Socrates, have written these things in Corinth from the copies made by Gaius. May grace be with everyone.  (MPol 22.2) And so, as was indicated before, Gaius made a transcription from the writings of Irenaeus, as Isocrates did, in Corinth, from the copies of Gaius And then I, Pionius, wrote a copy from those of Isocrates, in accordance with a revelation of the holy Polycarp, after seeking out these writings and gathering them together when they were nearly worn out by age, so that the Lord Jesus Christ may gather me together with his chosen ones into his heavenly kingdom. (MPol 22 Moscow Codex) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003). Commentary: Gaius is mentioned as a copyist in the concluding appendix to the Martyrdom of Polycarp. According to MPol 22 and the variant on this text that appears in the later Moscow Codex, Gaius transcribed (that is, copied) the account from the papers of Irenaeus. The somewhat awkwardly phrased language suggests that Irenaeus and Gaius lived in the same city (perhaps Rome?) at the same time. Irenaeus is here presumed to be a disciple of Polycarp and presumably the bishop of Lyon and author of Against the Heresies. The connection between Polycarp and Irenaeus helps to cement the reliability of the copy. It is noteworthy that both of the codicils to the account generate a picture of a web of literary relationships between a variety of scribes across time. This network parallels, as Kim Haines-Eitzen has shown, the scribal networks of upper Egypt. The Martyrdom of Polycarp–which recounts the arrest, trial, and execution of Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna–is framed as a letter from the Church in Smyrna to the church of Philomelium in Phrygia. The letter describes events that took place in the mid-second century and was composed within a century of the martyr’s death. Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Copyist; Martyrdom Account; Literate Worker; Polycarp Related Entries: Evaristus; Isocrates Bibliography: Ehrman, Bart D. The Apostolic Fathers. Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Gaius (MPol 20).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Literate Worker; Secretary Gender: Male Date: mid-late second century CE Place: Smyrna Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Martyrdom Account; Letter Title of Work: Martyrdom of Polycarp Reference:  MPol 22 Original Text: προσαγορεύετε πάντας τοὺς ἁγίους. ὑμᾶς οἱ σὺν ἡμῖν προσαγορεύουσιν καὶ Εὐάρεστος, ὁ γράψας, πανοικεί. (MPol 20) English Translation: Those who are with us greet you, as does Evaristus, the one who is writing the letter, with his entire household. (MPol 20) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003). Commentary: Evaristus was the secretary or author of the Martyrdom of Polycarp, a letter that recounts the arrest, trial, and execution of Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. The letter is framed as a missive from the Church in Smyrna to the Church of Philomelium in Phrygia. The account describes events that took place in the mid-second century and was composed within a century of the martyr’s death. The circumstances of composition are somewhat unclear. The letter was either dictated to Evaristus by an otherwise unknown man named Marcion (Ehrman) or Marcion served as a source for Evaristus’s composition (Frend). In the former explanation, Evaristus is positioned as taking dictation (Compare Tertius of Rom. 16:22), in the second he inscribed the memories of an eyewitness (Compare Mark’s relationship to the apostle Peter in Papias). The fact that Evaristus’s whole household (πανοικεί) greets the church does not necessarily identify Evaristus as a freeborn paterfamilias (head of household) although the term is used that way in Acts 16:34. His name means “well pleasing” or “pleasant” and was used of enslaved and formerly enslaved people (e.g. CIL 5.1089) Some manuscripts add “τὴν ἐπιστολὴν” (the letter) after “the one who is writing” and this is reflected in Ehrman’s translation. Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Literate Worker; Martyrdom Account; Polycarp; Secretary; Smyrna Related Entries: Gaius; Isocrates Bibliography: Ehrman, Bart D. The Apostolic Fathers. Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. Frend, W. H. C. Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church. A Study of A Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus. Oxford: Blackwell, 1965. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Evaristus (MPol 20).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Messenger Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Corinth Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: 1 Corinthians Reference:  1 Cor. 16:15–17 Original Text: Παρακαλῶ δὲ ὑμᾶς, ἀδελφοί· οἴδατε τὴν οἰκίαν Στεφανᾶ, ὅτι ἐστὶν ἀπαρχὴ τῆς Ἀχαΐας καὶ εἰς διακονίαν τοῖς ἁγίοις ἔταξαν ἑαυτούς· 16 ἵνα καὶ ὑμεῖς ὑποτάσσησθε τοῖς τοιούτοις καὶ παντὶ τῷ συνεργοῦντι καὶ κοπιῶντι. 17 χαίρω δὲ ἐπὶ τῇ παρουσίᾳ Στεφανᾶ καὶ Φορτουνάτου καὶ Ἀχαϊκοῦ, ὅτι τὸ ὑμέτερον ὑστέρημα οὗτοι ἀνεπλήρωσαν· (NA28 1 Cor. 16:15-17) English Translation: Now, brothers and sisters, you know that members of the household of Stephanas were the first converts in Achaia, and they have devoted themselves to the service of the saints; I urge you to put yourselves at the service of such people, and of everyone who works and toils with them.  I rejoice at the coming of Stephanas and Fortunatus and Achaicus, because they have made up for your absence. (NRSV 1 Cor. 16:15-17) Commentary: Fortunatus appears alongside Achaicus and Stephanas as members of the Corinthian assembly with whom Paul had been in contact previously. Near the end of 1 Corinthians, Paul notes that the household of Stephanas were the first Jesus-followers in the province of Achaia. What is less clear is the relationship of Fortunatus to Stephanas and Achaicus. It is possible that Fortunatus is an enslaved member of Stephanas’s household alongside Achaicus. His name also lends itself to this possibility, since it is a Latin term meaning “lucky” or “fortunate.” Fortunatus is a well-attested name for enslaved persons on Latin funerary monuments (e.g., CIL 6 8645; CIL 8 12597; CIL 15 1343,4). Given that Paul mentions the arrival of Fortunatus alongside Stephanas and Achaicus, it is possible that Fortunatus was one of the messengers sent from the Corinthian assembly to Paul with a letter that preceded 1 Corinthians. If this is the case, it is also possible to consider whether Fortunatus was involved in the reading or interpretation of the letter preceding 1 Corinthians to Paul, or if Achaicus was involved in the transportation, reading, or interpretation of 1 Corinthians to the Corinthian assembly. Keywords: Christian; Messenger; New Testament; Paul Bibliography: Head, Peter M. “Named Letter-Carriers among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 31.3 (2009): 279–299. Horn, Friedrich Wilhelm. “Stephanas und sein Haus – die erste christliche Hausgemeinde in der Achaia: ihre Stellung in der Kommunikation zwischen Paulus und der korinthischen Gemeinde.” Pages 83–98 in Paulus und die antike Welt: Beiträge zur zeit- und religionsgechichtlichen Erforschung des paulinischen Christentumes: Festgabe für Dietrich-Alex Koch zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by David C. Bienert et al. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008. Last, Richard. “The Neighborhood (vicus) of the Corinthian ekklēsia: Beyond Family-Based Descriptions of the First Urban Christ-Believers.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 38.4 (2017): 399–425. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E. “Fortunatus (1 Cor 16:17).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Literate Worker; Messenger Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Philippi Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Philippians Reference:   Phil 2:25 and Phil 4:18 Original Text: Ἀναγκαῖον δὲ ἡγησάμην Ἐπαφρόδιτον τὸν ἀδελφὸν καὶ συνεργὸν καὶ συστρατιώτην μου, ὑμῶν δὲ ἀπόστολον καὶ λειτουργὸν τῆς χρείας μου, πέμψαι πρὸς ὑμᾶς (Phil 2:25) ἀπέχω δὲ πάντα καὶ περισσεύω· πεπλήρωμαι δεξάμενος παρὰ Ἐπαφροδίτου τὰ παρ’ ὑμῶν, ὀσμὴν εὐωδίας, θυσίαν δεκτήν, εὐάρεστον τῷ θεῷ.(Phil. 4:18) English Translation: Still, I think it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus—my brother and coworker and fellow soldier, your messenger and minister to my need. (Phil 2:25) I have been paid in full and have more than enough; I am fully satisfied, now that I have received from Epaphroditus the gifts you sent, a fragrant offering, a sacrifice acceptable and pleasing to God. (Phil 4:18) Commentary: Epaphroditus appears twice in the letter to the Philippians that is sent between Paul and the Christian community of Philippi. Paul first mentions Epaphroditus as a Jesus-following coworker whom he plans to send to Philippi soon, particularly since the Philippian community seemingly inquired in an earlier (now-lost) letter about Epaphroditus’s health. Paul mentions that Epaphroditus nearly died from his illness. Near the end of the letter, we also learn that Epaphroditus had previously come from the Philippian community to Paul with a financial offering that was meant to sustain Paul during his missionary journeys. Given that Epaphroditus is called brother, coworker, and fellow soldier, it is extremely likely that he was a Jesus-follower and functioned (at least in part) as a courier. He may have been involved in the delivery not only of financial offerings, but also the exchange of letters—or perhaps in their composition or editing. Notably, Paul calls Epaphroditus a “messenger” or “apostle” (apostolos) to the Philippian community, which suggests that he had a prominent role in the dissemination of information and perhaps in the education of community members. However, Epaphroditus is also placed in an explicitly subservient position to that of Paul, in which he was obliged to care for Paul’s needs and represent the desires of the Philippian community. Epaphroditus was a common Greek name in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, particularly among enslaved and formerly enslaved persons. It is related to the goddess Aphrodite and refers to being “charming” or “attractive,” much like the Latin name Venustus. It is well attested on funerary monuments of enslaved persons (e.g., AE 1982, 510; CIL 6 44; CIL 6 15615; CIL 14 2169), and would have likely been applied to enslaved persons to signal realized or aspirational attractiveness to enslavers. Given that Epaphras is a shortened form of the name Epaphroditus, it is possible that he is the same figure named in Col 1:7, 4:12, and Philemon 23. If this is the case, then Epaphroditus functioned as a (formerly) enslaved representative of Paul’s missionizing at Colossae. Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Messenger; New Testament; Paul Related Entries: Epaphras Bibliography: Charles, Ronald. The Silencing of Slaves in Early Jewish and Christian Texts (London: Routledge, 2020), 66–102. Marchal, Joseph A. “Slaves as Wo/men and Unmen: Reflecting upon Euodia, Syntyche, and Epaphroditus in Philippi.” Pages 141–176 in The People Beside Paul: The Philippian Assembly and History from Below. Edited by Joseph A. Marchal. Early Christianity and its Literature 17. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, 2015. Stenschke, Christoph W. “Übergemeindliche Verbindungen im Urchristentum nach dem Philipperbrief.” Neotestamentica 52.2 (2018): 377–432. Williams, H. H. Drake. “Honouring Epaphroditus: A Suffering and Faithful Servant Worthy of Admiration.” Pages 333–355 in Paul and His Social Relations, ed. Stanley E. Porter and Christopher D. Land, Pauline Studies 7 (Leiden: Brill, 2013). How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E. “Epaphroditus (Phil. 2 and 4).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. .

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: mid-second century CE Place: Rome Language:  Latin Literary Genre: Martyrdom Account; Court Transcript (Acta) Title of Work: Acts of Justin and Companions (Recension B) Reference:  Ac. Justin B 4.3 Original Text: Ῥουστιχος  ἔπαρχος εἶπεν τω Eὐέλπιστῷ Συ δὲ τίς εἰ,  Eὐέλπιστε; Eὐέλπιστος δοῦλος Καίσαρος ἀπεκρίνατο Κἀγὼ Χριστιανός εἰμι ἐλευθερωθεις ὑπὸ Χριστοῦ, καὶ τῆς αὐτῆς μετέχω χάριτι Χριστοῦ (Ac. Justin B 4.3) English Translation: The prefect Rusticus said to Evelpistus: ‘And what are you, Evelpistus?’ Evelpistus, one of the emperor’s slaves, answered: ‘I too am a Christian.'[1]  I have been freed by Christ and I share in the same by the favor of Christ.’ (Ac. Justin B 4.3) Text and Translation modified from Herbert Musurillo, Acts of the Christian Martyrs (Clarendon: Oxford, 1954) Commentary: Euelpistus (sometimes known in English translation and commentary as Evelpistus) is one of a group of students of the Christian teacher and philosopher Justin of Rome (more commonly known as Justin Martyr). He appears in all three recensions of the Acts of Justin, but in the second is first described as an “imperial slave.” This identification and Euelpistus’s statement that he has been “freed” by Christ forms the basis for a tense conversation with Rusticus, the Roman prefect. Much as this conversation evokes the (debatedly) metaphorical Pauline language of freedom in Christ. To Rusticus and other hearers the conversation sounds quite literal (Moss). The inclusion of this detail in Recension B reflects, as Flexsenhar has shown, an increased interest in imperial slaves in the third century and beyond. The expansion of traditions about him in the Decian period (250 CE) is grounded in the character of Euelpistus’s name, which evoked “slavish” notions of fidelity. We might fruitfully compare here the Martyrdom of Paul, which includes Patroclus, an enslaved Christian in the imperial household. This is the first martyrdom account that includes the death of an enslaved person from the imperial household. That Euelpistus was a member of the “school” of Justin should lead us to conclude that Euelpistus was literate. Keywords: Christian; Justin Martyr; Imperial Household; Literate Worker; Martyrdom Account Bibliography: Flexsenhar III, Michael. Christians in Caesar’s Household. The Emperor’s Slaves in the Makings of Christianity. Inventing Christianity Vol. 1. University Park: Penn State Press, 2019. Moss, Candida. Ancient Christian Martyrdom. Yale Anchor Reference Library. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Euelpistus (Acts of Justin B 4).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. Notes: 1 A relevant alternative translation supplied by Musurillo is “I am Evepistus, an imperial slave”

Role: Messenger Gender: Male Date: early-second century CE Place: Ephesus; Rome Language: Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians; Ignatius, Letter to the Romans Reference: Ign. Eph. 2; Ign. Rom. 10 Original Text: Περὶ δὲ τοῦ συνδούλου μου Βούρρου, τοῦ κατὰ θεὸν διακόνου ὑμῶν ἐν πᾶσιν εὐλογημένου, εὔχομαι παραμεῖναι αὐτὸν εἰς τιμὴν ὑμῶν καὶ τοῦ ἐπισκόπου· καὶ Κρόκος δέ, ὁ θεοῦ ἄξιος καὶ ὑμῶν, ὃν ἐξεμπλάριον τῆς ἀφ᾿ ὑμῶν ἀγάπης ἀπέλαβον, κατὰ πάντα με ἀνέπαυσεν, ὡς καὶ αὐτὸν ὁ πατὴρ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ ἀναψύξαι ἅμα Ὀνησίμῳ καὶ Βούρρῳ καὶ Εὔπλῳ καὶ Φρόντωνι, δι᾿ ὧν πάντας ὑμᾶς κατὰ ἀγάπην εἶδον. (Ign. Eph. 2) Γράφω δὲ ὑμῖν ταῦτα ἀπὸ Σμύρνης δι᾿ Ἐφεσίων τῶν ἀξιομακαρίστων. ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἅμα ἐμοὶ σὺν ἄλλοις πολλοῖς καὶ Κρόκος, τὸ ποθητόν μοι ὄνομα. (Ign. Rom. 10) English Translation: But as to my fellow slave Burrhus, your godly deacon who is blessed in all things, I ask that he stay here for the honor of both you and the bishop. And Crocus as well—who is worthy of God and of you, whom I received as an embodiment of your love—has revived me in every way. So may the Father of Jesus Christ refresh him, along with Onesimus, Burrhus, Euplus, and Fronto, those through whom I lovingly saw all of you.  (Ign. Eph. 2) I am writing this to you from Smyrna, through Ephesians, who are worthy to be blessed. Along with many others, Crocus is with me, a name that is dear to me. (Ign. Rom. 10) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library 24; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 150–1. Commentary: Crocus was one of two literate workers prominently mentioned in the letters of Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch. As Ignatius of Antioch journeyed under house arrest from Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) to Rome for his eventual execution, he utilized the services of literate workers to communicate with churches along the way. Crocus was likely from Ephesus or its environs. He may be identified as the secretary for Ignatius’s Letter to the Romans and may also have delivered the letter. Ultimate responsibility for the writing of the Letter to the Romans is credited to the Ephesians. We can infer from this that  the Ephesians supplied Crocus and are here credited with his work. Unlike Burrhus, about whom there were some disagreements about sponsorship, the arrangement regarding the costs of Crocus’ assistance seems to have been settled. The situation evokes the ways in which the work of enslaved people is credited to their enslavers. When Ignatius speaks of Crocus and Burrhus, he consistently refers to the honor that they bring to the Ephesians and Smyrnaeans. He describes them as literate objects, calling them “living cop[ies]” of the love of the Ephesians. The word for “copy” here is exemplarium, a Latin loanword used to describe literary copies of legal documents (Dig. 31.47). As Chris Londa has shown, messengers were regularly pictured as extensions of the presence and character of the ones who had sent them, but their status as breathing objects evokes the Roman elite practice of describing secretaries as tablets and pens. We should note that Ignatius uses the same language of Onesimus, the Bishop (Ign. Trall. 3.2). Like Burrhus and several others, Crocus is identified as one of those who “refreshed” Ignatius during his captivity (Ign. Eph. 2.2). This may imply that like Epaphroditus and Onesimus, who supported Paul while he was imprisoned, Crocus performed other tasks on behalf of the imprisoned Ignatius. The rarely attested Greek name Crocus means “saffron.” It was held by people from a variety of ranks (Preisigke, 187). Among them were several enslaved workers (e.g. CIL 6.4422; CIL 6.16610). Crocus’s dependence upon and description as a literary representation of the Ephesians leans strongly in the direction of enslaved status. There are numerous difficulties involving the form and dating of the letters of Ignatius. Scholarly efforts to date the corpus range from the early to the late second century. On this see the summary contained in the introduction to Ehrman’s edition. Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Ignatius; Literate Worker; Messenger; Secretary Bibliography: Londa, Chris. “Letters.” In Writing, Enslavement, and Powerin the Roman Mediterranean. Edited by Jeremiah Coogan, Joseph Howley, Candida Moss. Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming. Moss, Candida R. God’s Ghostwriters: Enslaved Christians and the Making of the Bible. New York: Little Brown, 2024. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Crocus (Ign. Eph. 2 and Rom. 10)” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. .

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: Late-first to early second century CE Place: Rome Language: Greek Literary Genre: Apocalypse; Revelation Dialogue Title of Work: Shepherd of Hermas Reference: Herm. Vis. 2.1.3–4 (5.3–4); 2.4.3 (8.3); 5.5–6 (25.5–6) Original Text: λέγω αὐτῇ· Κυρία, τοσαῦτα μνημονεῦσαι οὐ δύναμαι· δὸς δέ μοι τὸ βιβλίδιον, ἵνα μεταγράψωμαι αὐτό. Λάβε, φησίν, καὶ ἀποδώσεις μοι. 4 ἔλαβον ἐγώ, καὶ εἰς τινα τόπον τοῦ ἀγροῦ ἀναχωρήσας μετεγραψάμην πάντα πρὸς γράμμα· οὐχ ηὕρισκον γὰρ τὰς συλλαβάς. τελέσαντος οὖν τὰ γράμματα τοῦ βιβλιδίου ἐξαίφνης ἡρπάγη μου ἐκ τῆς χειρὸς τὸ βιβλίδιον· ὑπὸ τίνος δὲ οὐκ εἶδον. (Herm. Vis. 2.1.3–4 [5.3–4]) γράψεις οὖν δύο βιβλαρίδια καὶ πέμψεις ἓν Κλήμεντι καὶ ἓν Γραπτῇ. πέμψει οὖν Κλήμης εἰς τὰς ἔξω πόλεις, ἐκείνῳ γὰρ ἐπιτέτραπται. Γραπτὴ δὲ νουθετήσει τὰς χήρας καὶ τοὺς ὀρφανούς. σὺ δε ἀναγνώσῃ εἰς ταύτην τὴν πόλιν μετὰ τῶν πρεσβυτέρων τῶν προϊσταμένων τῆς ἐκκλησίας. (Herm. Vis. 2.4.3 [8.3]) ἀπεστάλην γάρ, φησίν, ἵνα ἃ εἶδες πρότερον πάντα σοι πάλιν δείξω, αὐτὰ τὰ κεφάλαια τὰ ὄντα ὑμῖν σύμφορα. πρῶτον πάντων τὰς ἐντολάς μου γράψον καὶ τάς παραβολάς· τὰ δὲ ἕτερα καθώς σοι δείξω οὕτως γράψεις· διὰ τοῦτο, φησίν, ἐντέλλομαί σοι πρῶτον γράψαι τὰς ἐντολὰς καὶ παραβολάς, ἵνα ὑπὶ χεῖρα ἀναγινώσκῃς αὐτὰς καἰ δυνηθῇς φυλάξαι αὐτάς. 6 ἔγραψα οὖν τὰς ἐντολὰς καὶ παραβολάς, καθὼς ἐνετείλατό μοι. (Herm. Vis. 5.5–6 [25.5–6]) English Translation: I said to her [i.e., the Ekklesia]: “Lady, I am not able to remember so many things. Give me the little book, so that I can copy it.” “Take it,” she said, “and return it to me.” I took it and, having gone to some place in the field, I copied it letter by letter, since I could not find the syllables. When I finished the letters of the little book, suddenly the little book was snatched from my hand—by whom, I did not see. (Herm. Vis. 2.1.3–4 [5.3–4]) Therefore, write two little books and send one to Clement and the other to Grapte. Then Clement will send it to the outer cities, since it is entrusted to him. But Grapte will instruct the widows and orphans. And you will read it in the city with the presbyters who preside over the assembly. (Herm. Vis. 2.4.3 [8.3]) “For I was sent,” he [i.e., the Shepherd] said, “that I might show you everything that you saw previously, the most important points that are beneficial for you. First of all, write down my commandments and parables, and write down the other things as I show them to you. Therefore,” he said, “I command you first to write down the commandments and parables, in order that you might read them immediately and might keep them.” So, I wrote down the commandments and parables, just as he commanded me. (Herm. Vis. 5.5–6 [25.5–6]) Commentary: Hermas is the protagonist, first-person narrator, and likely author of the Shepherd of Hermas. The Shepherd is a long and complex revelation dialogue that centers an enslaved or formerly enslaved man named Hermas, who experiences a set of visions and divine encounters with the Ekklesia and the Shepherd just outside of Rome. The Shepherd is a rare early Christian text that claims to be composed by a (formerly) enslaved person, and that depicts its own composition as a key part of the narrative itself. The text opens by describing Hermas’s (former) enslavement as a household enslaved person (verna), sold to a Roman woman named Rhoda (Herm. Vis. 1.1.1–2 [1.1–2]) and his later encounter with Rhoda while she was bathing in the Tiber River. Throughout the Visions (the first 25 chapters of the Shepherd), Hermes is portrayed as a literate worker who is involved in copying written texts, receiving oral dictation to write down, distributing literature to others in his early Christian network, and reading and interpreting literature for an assembled audience. The level of Hermas’s literacy is debated because of the self-description of his inability to comprehend the syllables in the Ekklesia’s little book. The name “Hermas” is a variant of Hermes, and was a name often given to enslaved and formerly enslaved persons in the ancient Mediterranean (e.g., CIL 4 4512; CIL 6 8960; CIL 11 6947). Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Literate Worker Related Entries: Clement; Grapte Bibliography: Bonar, Chance Everett. “Enslaved to God: Slavery and Divine Despotics in the Shepherd of Hermas.” PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 2023. Bonar, Chance Everett. “Hermas the (Formerly?) Enslaved: Rethinking Manumission and Hermas’s Biography in the Shepherd of Hermas.” Early Christianity 13.2 (2022): 205–226. Kartzow, Marianna Bjelland. “The Former Slave Hermas, Lady Church and ‘the Book.’” Pages 195–213 in Experiencing the Shepherd of Hermas. Edited by Angela Kim Harkins and Harry O. Maier. Ekstasis 10. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2022. Proctor, Travis W. “Books, Scribes, and the Cultures of Reading in the Shepherd of Hermas.” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 73.3 (2022): 461–479. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E. “Hermas (Shepherd of Hermas).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. .

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: ca. 110 CE Place: Smyrna Language: Latin Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Letter to the Philippians Reference: Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians 14 Original Text: Haec vobis scripsi per Crescentem, quem in praesenti commendavi vobis et nunc commendo. conversatus est enim nobiscum inculpabiliter; credo quia et vobiscum similiter, sororem autem eius habebitis commendatam, cum venerit ad vos. (Pol. Phil. 14) English Translation: I am writing these things to you through Crescens, whom I commended to you recently [Or: when I was with you] and now commend again. For he has conducted himself blamelessly among us; and I believe that he will do the same among you. And his sister will be commended to you when she comes to you. (Pol. Phil. 14) Text and Translation adapted from Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library 24; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 150–1. Commentary: Crescens is the individual “through” (per) whom Polycarp, the mid-second century Bishop of Smyrna, wrote his Letter to the Philippians. The Latin preposition almost certainly suggested that Crescens was the messenger who carried the letter, if not also Polycarp’s secretary. Similar language is used in several Ignatian epistles (Ign. Phld. 11.2; Ign. Smyrn. 12.1; Ign. Rom. 10.1). Polycarp recommends both Crescens and his unnamed sister to group, identifying him as having conducted himself “blamelessly” (inculpabiliter), a likely translation of the underlying Greek ἄμεμπτος (Hartog). The name Crescens is found in the pseudepigraphical letter 2 Tim 4:10 as a companion and, perhaps, emissary of Paul. It is a common cognomen appearing, for example, among members of a voluntary association dedicated to Silvanus in Philippi (CIL 3.633). Keywords: Apostolic Fathers; Christian; Literate Worker; Polycarp; Secretary Bibliography: Hartog, Paul. Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians and the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Oxford Apostolic Fathers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Kleist, James A. The Didache. Ancient Christian Writings 6. Paramus, NJ: Paulist Press, 1948. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Crescens (Pol. Phil. 14).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. . Notes: 1 Kleist, Didache, 196 n100.