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Role: Copyist; Calligrapher Gender: Female Date: Mid-third century CE Place: Alexandria Language: Greek Literary Genre: History Title of Work: Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History Reference: Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.18.1–2; 6.23.1–2 cf. Jerome, Vir. ill. 56; 61.3 Original Text: Ἐξ ἐκείνου, δὲ καὶ Ὠριγένει τῶν εἰς τὰς θείας γραφὰς ὑπομνημάτων ἐγίνετο ἀρχή, Ἀμβροσίου παρορμῶντος αὐτὸν μυρίαις οὐ προτροπαῖς ταῖς διὰ λόγων καὶ παρακλήσεσιν αὐτὸ μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀφθονωτάταις τῶν ἐπιτηδείων χορηγίαις. 2 Ταχυγράφοι τε γὰρ αὐτῷ πλείους ἢ ἑπτὰ τὸν ἀριθμὸν παρῆσαν ὑπαγορεύοντι, χρόνοις τεταγμένοις ἀλλήλους ἀμείβοντες,  βιβλιογράφοι τε οὐχ ἥττους ἅμα καὶ κόραις ἐπὶ τὸ καλλιγραφεῖν ἠσκημέναις· ὧν ἁπάντων τὴν δέουσαν τῶν ἐπιτηδείων ἄφθονον περιουσίαν ὁ Ἀμβρόσιος παρεστήσατο·  (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.18.1–2) English Translation: From that time, Origen also began commentaries on the divine writings, with Ambrose urging him on, not only with the kind of encouragement and exhortation that comes in words, but also with a plentiful supply of what was required. For more than seven shorthand writers were with him when he dictated, relieving each other on a schedule, and just as many scribes, along with maidens trained in calligraphy. Ambrose generously supplied what was required for all of them. (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.18.1–2) Text: Eduard Schwartz, Eusebius Kirchesngeschichte (Repr.; Berlin: De Gruyter, 2021) Translation: Modified from Jeremy Schott, The History of the Church: A New Translation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019) Commentary: Seven enslaved female calligraphers (κόραις ἐπὶ τὸ καλλιγραφεῖν ἠσκημέναις) assisted the mid-third-century Christian teacher, philosopher, and polymath Origen of Alexandria with his literary needs. They were “supplied” to Origen by his patron Ambrose, a detail that suggests that these anonymous workers were enslaved and were “gifted” in the same way as Roman elites gifted literate workers to one another. It is possible that these young women had been educated in Ambrose’s household in much the same way as the wealthy Roman Atticus trained all of the members of his household to read and write (Haines-Eitzen). In scholarship on ancient literacy it is often assumed that the vast majority of women were illiterate. The reference here to professionally trained female calligraphers, thus, invites comment. The existence of Eusebius’s calligraphers suggests that women were also trained to be literary experts (Haines-Eitzen). Other examples of enslaved literate women include Sulpicia Petale (AE 1928, 73); the enslaved Christian teacher Grapte (Herm.Vis.2.4); and, potentially, the woman who holds tablets in a second century relief depicting a butcher’s shop originally from Trastevere in Rome (Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, inv. ZV 44). Of equal interest is the young women’s ages. Eusebius presents the calligraphers as young women (κοραῖος). Many enslaved literate workers were young because their senses were known to be sharper than those of adults (Moss). Examples like Melior, a distinguished accountant whose funerary relief indicates that he died at the age of thirteen, indicate that enslaved copyists could reach positions of distinction at a young age (Eckhardt, 130). The same term “calligrapher” (καλλιγραφος) is used by the fourth-century monk Epiphanius of a well-educated Christian copyist named Hieracas (Pan. 67.1.1–4; 67.7.9). Keywords:  Christian; Copyist; Eusebius; Literate Worker; Origen; Women Related Entries: Anonymous Copyists (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.23.1-2); Anonymous Shorthand Writers (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.23); Grapte (Herm. Vis. 2) Bibliography: Eckardt, Hella. Writing and Power in the Roman World: Literacies and Material Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017. Haines-Eitzen, Kim. “‘Girls Trained in Beautiful Writing’: Female Scribes in Roman Antiquity and Early Christianity.” JECS 6.4 (1998): 629-646. ———Guardians of Letters: Literacy, Power and the Transmitters of Early Christian Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Moss, Candida R. “Disability.” In Writing, Enslavement, and Power in the Roman Mediterranean. Edited by Jeremiah Coogan, Joseph Howley, and Candida Moss. Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming. How to Cite: Coogan, Jeremiah and Candida Moss. “Anonymous Female Calligraphers (Eusebius, HE 6.23.1)” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. .

Role: Literate Workers Gender: Unknown Date: 90-150 CE Place: Unknown Language:  Gospel; Bios; Narrative Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Gospel of Luke Reference: Luke 1:1–4 Original Text: Ἐπειδήπερ πολλοὶ ἐπεχείρησαν ἀνατάξασθαι διήγησιν περὶ τῶν πεπληροφορημένων ἐν ἡμῖν πραγμάτων, καθὼς παρέδοσαν ἡμῖν οἱ ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς αὐτόπται καὶ ὑπηρέται γενόμενοι τοῦ λόγου,  ἔδοξεν κἀμοὶ παρηκολουθηκότι ἄνωθεν πᾶσιν ἀκριβῶς καθεξῆς σοι γράψαι, κράτιστε Θεόφιλε, ἵνα ἐπιγνῷς περὶ ὧν κατηχήθης λόγων τὴν ἀσφάλειαν. (NA28 Luke 1:1–4) English Translation: Since many have undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed on to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, I too decided, after investigating everything carefully from the very first, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the truth concerning the things about which you have been instructed. (NRSV Luke 1:1–4) Commentary: The context of this passage is the opening to the Gospel of Luke. The author here notes their reliance on the "huperetai of the word." The language is usually translated as either "ministers" or "servants," terms that in conjunction with the reference to “the word” have a theological resonance for Christian readers. In Greek the term can refer to any kind of service including subordinate workers, assistants employed in executions, and those who attended soldiers. The same term is used in Luke 4:20 of the attendant to whom Jesus hands the scroll in the synagogue. Commentary on Luke 4:20 has viewed this attendant as a lower status worker comparable to a tanna. We might reasonably infer that these invisible individuals were enslaved workers involved in the curation of oral or written sources for the Gospel of Luke. Keywords: Christian; Gospel of Luke, Literate Workers; New Testament Bibliography: Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Anonymous Assistants (Luke 1:1-4).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. .

Role: Literate Worker Images: Detail of the Alexamenos Graffito (Photo Credit Brent Nongbri) Alexamenos Graffitto Line Drawing McClellan Gender: Male Date: Early 2nd - early 3rd century CE Brief Description: The image shows a man or young boy worshiping a donkey headed man who is affixed to a cross. Beneath the cross is a crudely made inscription in rudimentary Greek. The graffito was scratched into plaster on the wall of a room, usually identified as a paedagogium or school room, near the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. It is usually identified as one of the earliest images of Jesus. Initial Publication: Raffaele Garrucci, Un crocifisso graffito da mano pagana nella casa dei Cesari sul Palatino (Rome: Copi tipi della civiltà, 1856), 529-45. Find Spot: Internal wall of a building located on the south-eastern slope of the Palatine Hill in Rome. The building is usually referred to as the Paedagogium. The graffito was found on the south-east wall of room 7. Current Location: Museum Palatino inv. 381403, Rome. Material: Plaster Measurements: 38 cm x 33.5 cm Language: Greek Inscription: ΑΛΕ ΞΑΜΕΝΟϹ ϹΕΒΕΤΕ ΘΕΟΝ, ALE XAMENOS SEBETE THEON. ϹΕΒΕΤΕ English Translations: Alexamenos worships [his] God Alternate Translation: Alexamenos worshiping a god Commentary: Alexamenos was a second-century enslaved Christian child who was educated at the paedagogium (schoolroom) that is located on the Palatine Hill in Rome. His existence is noted in the famous Alexamenos graffito, which is generally regarded as one of the earliest images of the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth. In the image, Alexamenos is shown looking up at a donkey-headed man on a cross. Tertullian and Minucius Felix refer to the pagan view that Christians worshiped a donkey headed God (Ad Nat. 1.14.1-4; Minucius Felix 9.3; 28.7). In the image the crucified man (Jesus), is seen from behind. The cross is the  “T” or tau shaped cross known as a crux commissa. Above the crossbar there seems to be a tabula where the titulus (identifying title) would have been attached. Both Alexamenos and the crucified figure are wearing a short, sleeveless tunic known as a colobrium. This particular form of dress was associated with servile status and work. The donkey head itself was associated with servile status Given that the Palatine schoolroom is filled with graffiti that mention the names of students it is likely that both Alexamenos and the author of the graffito were enslaved children who were being educated as part of the imperial household. There is some external evidence of Christians in the imperial household during the Severan period (Tertullian, Scap. 4; See Euelpistus). Alexamenos is a Greek name meaning Alexander that was frequently used of enslaved workers in Rome (Solin, 1996). While some scholars have identified the graffito as evidence of hostility towards Christians or even evidence of the persecution of Christians in Rome, the graffito is more at home in the satirical context of playroom taunts. Many other examples of playful taunts have been found in the space. The graffito presents evidence that Christian and non-Christian enslaved people worked alongside one another. Keywords: Christian; Graffiti; Imperial Household; Inscription; Literate Worker; Rome Image Sources: Line Rendering of the Alexamenos Graffito. Made by Dan McClellan. Detail of the Alexamenos Graffito 2nd Century C.E., Rome © Brent Nongbri Bibliography: Keegan, Peter.  “Reading the ‘Pages’ of the Domus Caesaris: Pueri Delicati, Slave Education, and the Graffiti of the Palatine Paedagogium.” Pages 69–98 in Roman Slavery and Roman Material Culture, ed. Michelle George. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. Harley-McGowan, Felicity. “The Alexamenos Graffito.” Pages 105-140 in The Reception of Jesus in the First Three Centuries. Edited by Chris Keith et al. London: T&T Clark, 2019. Schwaller, Tyler. “Picturing the Enslaved Christ: Philippians 2:6-8, Alexamenos, and a Mockery of Masculinity.” JECH 11.1 (2021): 38-65. Solin, Heikki and Marja Itkonen-Kaila, eds., Graffiti del Palatino I: Paedagogium (Helsinki: Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae, 1966), 210-212, 246. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Alexamenos (Graf. Pal. I.246).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. .

Role: Messenger Gender: Male Date: Mid-first century CE Place: Corinth Language: Greek Literary Genre: Letter Original Text: Παρακαλῶ δὲ ὑμᾶς, ἀδελφοί· οἴδατε τὴν οἰκίαν Στεφανᾶ, ὅτι ἐστὶν ἀπαρχὴ τῆς Ἀχαΐας καὶ εἰς διακονίαν τοῖς ἁγίοις ἔταξαν ἑαυτούς· 16 ἵνα καὶ ὑμεῖς ὑποτάσσησθε τοῖς τοιούτοις καὶ παντὶ τῷ συνεργοῦντι καὶ κοπιῶντι. 17 χαίρω δὲ ἐπὶ τῇ παρουσίᾳ Στεφανᾶ καὶ Φορτουνάτου καὶ Ἀχαϊκοῦ, ὅτι τὸ ὑμέτερον ὑστέρημα οὗτοι ἀνεπλήρωσαν· (1 Cor. 16:15-17) English Translation: Now, brothers and sisters, you know that members of the household of Stephanas were the first converts in Achaia, and they have devoted themselves to the service of the saints; I urge you to put yourselves at the service of such people, and of everyone who works and toils with them.  I rejoice at the coming of Stephanas and Fortunatus and Achaicus, because they have made up for your absence (NRSV 1 Cor. 16:15-17) Commentary: Achaicus appears alongside Fortunatus and Stephanas as members of the Corinthian assembly with whom Paul had been in contact previously. Near the end of 1 Corinthians, Paul notes that the household of Stephanas were the first Jesus-followers in the province of Achaia. What is less clear is the relationship of Achaicus to Stephanas and Fortunatus. It is possible that Achaicus is an enslaved member of Stephanas’s household alongside Fortunatus. His name also lends itself to this possibility, since toponymic names were often given to enslaved persons to represent the place from which they were trafficked or the site at which they were purchased. Achaicus, meaning “of Achaia,” appears with some frequency among funerary monuments as a name for enslaved or formerly enslaved persons (e.g., CIL 6 6800, 21223; AE 1978, 349) Given that Paul mentions the arrival of Achaicus alongside Stephanas and Fortunatus, it is possible that Achaicus was one of the messengers sent from the Corinthian assembly to Paul with a letter that preceded 1 Corinthians. If this is the case, it is also possible to consider whether Achaicus was involved in the reading or interpretation of the letter preceding 1 Corinthians to Paul, or if Achaicus was involved in the transportation, reading, or interpretation of 1 Corinthians to the Corinthian assembly. Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Messenger; New Testament; Paul Related Entries: Fortunatus Bibliography: Head, Peter M. “Named Letter-Carriers among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 31.3 (2009): 279–299. Horn, Friedrich Wilhelm. “Stephanas und sein Haus – die erste christliche Hausgemeinde in der Achaia: ihre Stellung in der Kommunikation zwischen Paulus und der korinthischen Gemeinde.” Pages 83–98 in Paulus und die antike Welt: Beiträge zur zeit- und religionsgechichtlichen Erforschung des paulinischen Christentumes: Festgabe für Dietrich-Alex Koch zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by David C. Bienert et al. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008. Last, Richard. “The Neighborhood (vicus) of the Corinthian ekklēsia: Beyond Family-Based Descriptions of the First Urban Christ-Believers.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 38.4 (2017): 399–425. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E. “Achaicus (1 Cor. 16:17).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Copyists Gender: Male Date:  Mid-third century CE Place: Alexandria Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Bios, History; Narrative Title of Work:  Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History Reference:  Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.23.1–2 cf. Jerome, Vir. ill. 56; 61.3 Original Text: Ἐξ ἐκείνου, δὲ καὶ Ὠριγένει τῶν εἰς τὰς θείας γραφὰς ὑπομνημάτων ἐγίνετο ἀρχή, Ἀμβροσίου παρορμῶντος αὐτὸν μυρίαις οὐ προτροπαῖς ταῖς διὰ λόγων καὶ παρακλήσεσιν αὐτὸ μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀφθονωτάταις τῶν ἐπιτηδείων χορηγίαις. 2 Ταχυγράφοι τε γὰρ αὐτῷ πλείους ἢ ἑπτὰ τὸν ἀριθμὸν παρῆσαν ὑπαγορεύοντι, χρόνοις τεταγμένοις ἀλλήλους ἀμείβοντες,  βιβλιογράφοι τε οὐχ ἥττους ἅμα καὶ κόραις ἐπὶ τὸ καλλιγραφεῖν ἠσκημέναις· ὧν ἁπάντων τὴν δέουσαν τῶν ἐπιτηδείων ἄφθονον περιουσίαν ὁ Ἀμβρόσιος παρεστήσατο·  (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.23.1–2) English Translation: From that time, Origen also began commentaries on the divine writings, with Ambrose urging him on, not only with the kind of encouragement and exhortation that comes in words, but also with a plentiful supply of what was required. For more than seven shorthand writers were with him when he dictated, relieving each other on a schedule, and just as many scribes, along with maidens trained in calligraphy. Ambrose generously supplied what was required for all of them. (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.23.1–2) Text: Eduard Schwartz, Eusebius Kirchesngeschichte (Repr.; Berlin: De Gruyter, 2021) Translation: Modified from Jeremy Schott, The History of the Church: A New Translation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019) Commentary: Seven enslaved copyists or “scribes” (βιβλιογράφοι) were furnished to the mid-third-century Christian teacher, philosopher, and polymath Origen of Alexandria by his patron Ambrose (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.18.1–2). That Ambrose “supplied” these anonymous workers suggests that they were enslaved and were “gifted” in the same way as Roman elites gifted literate workers to one another. The specific role of these workers is difficult to pin down, especially, given that Eusebius distinguishes them both from the female calligraphers who were also, presumably, copyists involved in book production and the shorthand writers (tachygraphers, Ταχυγράφοι) who took dictation at speed. Keywords: Alexandria; Christian; Literate Worker; Origen Related Entries: Anonymous Female Calligraphers (Eusebius, HE 6.23.1-2); Anonymous Shorthand Writers (Eusebius, HE 6.23) Bibliography: Haines-Eitzen, Kim. Guardians of Letters: Literacy, Power and the Transmitters of Early Christian Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. How to Cite: Coogan, Jeremiah and Candida Moss. “ “Anonymous Copyists (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 6.23)”” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Messenger Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Rome; Ephesus; Colossae Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Ephesians; Colossians Reference:  Eph 6:21; Col. 4:7. Original Text (Selected): Ἵνα δὲ εἰδῆτε καὶ ὑμεῖς τὰ κατ’ ἐμέ, τί πράσσω, πάντα γνωρίσει ὑμῖν Τύχικος ὁ ἀγαπητὸς ἀδελφὸς καὶ πιστὸς διάκονος ἐν κυρίῳ, (Eph. 6:21) Τὰ κατ’ ἐμὲ πάντα γνωρίσει ὑμῖν Τύχικος ὁ ἀγαπητὸς ἀδελφὸς καὶ πιστὸς διάκονος καὶ σύνδουλος ἐν κυρίῳ, (Col. 4:7) English Translation: So that you also may know how I am and what I am doing, Tychicus will tell you everything. He is a dear brother and a faithful minister in the Lord. (Eph. 6:21) Tychicus will tell you all the news about me; he is a beloved brother, a faithful minister, and a fellow slave in the Lord. (Col. 4:7) Commentary: Tychicus is a messenger mentioned in both of the deutero-Pauline epistles Ephesians and Colossians. In Colossians he is identified as a “loyal servant” (πιστὸς διάκονος) and fellow-enslaved (σύνδουλος) person to Christ. That he is identified as a servant (διάκονος) differentiates him from Timothy, Paul’s putative co-author (Col. 1:1), and Onesimus, Tychicus’s fellow-traveler (Col. 4:9). Instead, his description parallels the description of Epaphras in Col. 1:7, which might suggest that they work in a similar role in Colossae. Tychicus’s task in Col. 4:7-8 is somewhat unclear; he may have been sent to obtain information about the church in Colossae, or that he might impart information about Paul (Head). In Ephesians Tychicus’s remit is not simply to deliver the letter but to perform interpretive and pastoral work of encouraging their hearts (παρακαλέσῃ τὰς καρδίας ὑμῶν).” (6:22) Although it is not explicitly stated, we can assume that Tychicus was the primary bearer of the letters  (Cf. Rom. 16:1–2; Phil 2:25–30). A lengthy subscription to Colossians found in several manuscripts (K, L)  reads:  “To the Colossians, written from Rome (and delivered) through Tychicus and Onesimus (ἐγράφη ἀπὸ Ῥώμης διὰ Τυχίκου καὶ Ὀνησίμου).”  A Tychicus is also mentioned as a companion of Paul in Acts and is referenced as a messenger in the pseudepigraphical pastoral epistles (2 Tim 4:12; Titus 3:12). In some manuscripts of Acts (D) Tychicus is said to be an Ephesian, in most manuscripts he is identified as hailing from Asia Minor. The name Tychicus derives from the Greek “Τύχη” (fortune) and is one of a cluster of names used for enslaved and formerly enslaved men (CIL 6. 623;  CIL 6. 7775; CIL 6. 8547;  CIL 6. 26717;  CIL 6. 33766; CIL 15.5929). Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Messenger; New Testament; Paul; Secretary Related Entries:  Onesimus (Phlm) Bibliography: Head, Peter M. “Tychicus and the Colossian Christians: A Reconsideration of the Text of Colossians 4:8.” Pages 303–15 in Texts and Traditions: Essays in Honour of J. Keith Elliott. Edited by Peter Doble and Jeffrey Kloha. Leiden: Brill, 2014. Hemer, Colin J. The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1990. Solin, Heikki. Die stadtrömischen Sklavennamen: Ein Namenbuch I-III.  Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei, Beiheft 2. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1996. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Tychicus.” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Corinth; Colossae; Philippi; Thessalonica Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: 1 Corinthians; 2 Corinthians; Philippians; Philemon Reference:  2 Cor. 1:1; Phil 1:1 ; Col. 1:1;  1 Cor. 4:17; 1 Cor. 16:10; Phil 2:19; Philemon 1 Original Text (Selected): Παῦλος ἀπόστολος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ διὰ θελήματος θεοῦ καὶ Τιμόθεος ὁ ἀδελφὸς τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ τοῦ θεοῦ τῇ οὔσῃ ἐν Κορίνθῳ σὺν τοῖς ἁγίοις πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ Ἀχαΐᾳ (2 Cor. 1:1) Παῦλος καὶ Τιμόθεος δοῦλοι Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ πᾶσιν τοῖς ἁγίοις ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν Φιλίπποις σὺν ἐπισκόποις καὶ διακόνοις, (Phil. 1:1) Παῦλος ἀπόστολος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ διὰ θελήματος θεοῦ καὶ Τιμόθεος ὁ ἀδελφὸς (Col. 1:1) Διὰ τοῦτο ἔπεμψα ὑμῖν Τιμόθεον, ὅς ἐστίν μου τέκνον ἀγαπητὸν καὶ πιστὸν ἐν κυρίῳ, ὃς ὑμᾶς ἀναμνήσει τὰς ὁδούς μου τὰς ἐν Χριστῷ [Ἰησοῦ], καθὼς πανταχοῦ ἐν πάσῃ ἐκκλησίᾳ διδάσκω. (1 Cor. 4:17) Ἐὰν δὲ ἔλθῃ Τιμόθεος, βλέπετε, ἵνα ἀφόβως γένηται πρὸς ὑμᾶς· τὸ γὰρ ἔργον κυρίου ἐργάζεται ὡς κἀγώ· (1 Cor. 16:10) Ἐλπίζω δὲ ἐν κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ Τιμόθεον ταχέως πέμψαι ὑμῖν, ἵνα κἀγὼ εὐψυχῶ γνοὺς τὰ περὶ ὑμῶν. (Phil. 2:19) Παῦλος δέσμιος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ καὶ Τιμόθεος ὁ ἀδελφὸς Φιλήμονι τῷ ἀγαπητῷ καὶ συνεργῷ ἡμῶν (Phlm. 1) English Translation: Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and Timothy our brother, To the church of God that is in Corinth, including all the saints throughout Achaia…  (2 Cor. 1:1) Paul and Timothy, enslaved workers of Christ Jesus, To all the saints in Christ Jesus who are in Philippi, with the bishops [lit: overseers] and deacons [lit: assistants]  (Phil. 1:1) Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and Timothy our brother (Col. 1:1) For this reason I sent you Timothy, who is my beloved and faithful child in the Lord, to remind you of my ways in Christ Jesus, as I teach them everywhere in every church.  (1 Cor 4:17) If Timothy comes, see that he has nothing to fear among you, for he is doing the work of the Lord just as I am (1 Cor. 16:10) I hope in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you soon, so that I may be cheered by news of you. (Phil. 2:19) Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother (Phlm 1) Commentary: Timothy is one of the most visible of Paul’s co-authors, couriers, and missionary co-workers. Scholars are in the process of exploring whether Timothy was an enslaved or formerly enslaved literary worker, who was entrusted with prominent aspects of communication and instruction between Paul and Jesus-adhering communities in Greece and Asia Minor. Within Paul’s epistolary repertoire, he is presented multiple times as being a co-author alongside Paul (and occasionally alongside Silvanus). Claims of coauthorship occur both in letters that scholars agree belong to Paul (1 Thessalonians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians, Philemon), as well as letters that are more debated as to their Pauline authorship (2 Thessalonians, Colossians). The characterization of Timothy as an authorial figure might lead to reconsideration of what criteria make a letter count as distinctly or genuinely “Pauline.” Additionally, Timothean coauthorship may encourage readers to consider how Timothy may have influenced or produced parts of these letters. It is possible, although unclear, that Timothy may have composed one or more letters associated with his name. Timothy is also represented as one of Paul’s representatives or couriers to the Corinthians, Thessalonians, and Philippians. In doing so, Timothy is characterized as an extension of Paul’s presence and teachings in early Christian communities—perhaps stemming from the widespread concept that enslaved persons were bodily extensions and representatives of their enslaver in the ancient Mediterranean. Paul describes Timothy as functioning like a “son” (Phil 2:22), who is responsible for checking on the progress of certain Christian communities and reporting back to Paul. Timothy’s function in Pauline epistles is, in part, to transport information, progress reports, and teachings across the Mediterranean in order to keep Paul informed and encourage conformity to Paul’s message. Elsewhere in the Pauline epistles, Timothy appears as a figure who Paul highlights as a coworker recognizable to the Roman Christian community and a co-teacher of his message to the Corinthian community. Likewise in Hebrews and Acts, Timothy is depicted as a traveling co-teacher alongside Paul who is capable of being dispatched by Paul to particular communities. Among the letters deemed pseudo-Pauline, Timothy is presented as the recipient of two letters that focus mainly on qualifications for Christian leadership and maintenance of social hierarchies (1 Tim and 2 Tim). Such letters demonstrate how early Christians imagined communication between Paul and Timothy in ways that maintained Timothy’s subservient status. The name Timothy, meaning “honored by God,” was occasionally used to designate enslaved and formerly enslaved persons (e.g., CIL 10 6514; CIL 6 7009 ; CIL 6 8917). As Doole has argued, it is possible that Timothy was incarcerated with Paul during the composition of Philemon and Philippians. Author: 2 Cor. 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1; Phlm 1 Courier / Representative: 1 Cor. 4:17; 1 Cor 16:10 (anticipated); Phil 2:19; 1 Thess 3:2, 3:6 Other appearances: Acts 16:1, 17:14–15, 18:5, 19:22, 20:4; Rom 16:21; 2 Cor 1:19; 1 Tim 1:2, 1:18; 2 Tim 1:2; Heb 13:23 Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Messenger; New Testament; Paul; Secretary Related Entries: Silvanus (1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1) Bibliography: Doole, J. Andrew. “Was Timothy in Prison with Paul?” New Testament Studies 65.1 (2019): 59–77. Holloway, Paul A. “Alius Paulus: Paul’s Promise to Send Timothy at Philippians 2.19–24.” New Testament Studies 54.4 (2008): 541–556. Mitchell, Margaret M. “New Testament Envoys in the Context of Greco-Roman Diplomatic and Epistolary Conventions: The Example of Timothy and Titus.” JBL 111.4 (1992): 641–662. Shaner, Katherine. “Timothy, Slave of Christ, Slave of Paul?” Unpublished Paper Presented in a joint session organized by the Historical Paul Section and the Slavery, Resistance and Freedom Section. Annual Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature. November 18, 2024. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance. “Timothy.”  Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Secretary Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Corinth; Rome Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: Romans Reference: Rom. 16:22 Original Text: ἀσπάζομαι ὑμᾶς ἐγὼ Τέρτιος ὁ γράψας τὴν ἐπιστολὴν ἐν κυρίῳ. (Rom. 16:22) English Translation: I, Tertius, the writer of this letter, greet you in the Lord (Rom. 16:22) Commentary: Tertius was the secretary who worked with Paul in order to produce the letter to the Romans. The majority of interpreters locate the place of composition in Corinth, as is suggested from subscriptions to some manuscripts. Paul writes as a guest of Gaius (Rom 16:23a) who may be the same convert mentioned in 1 Cor. 1:14. If this is the case, Tertius too might be from Corinth. The fact that he sends his greetings suggests that he has ties to the city of Rome as well. There has been considerable scholarly debate about Tertius’ role in the authorship of the letter with some seeing Tertius as a potential author (Roller) or collaborator (Moss). While it is generally agreed that Tertius was the amanuensis (secretary) for the letter the process of inscription is unknown. Tertius may have taken dictation in shorthand, longhand, or syllable-by-syllable. Syllable-by-syllable dictation was only rarely employed with workers whose literate skills were less developed and for shorter letters (Cicero, Att. 13.25.3). Given the length of Romans, this method seems unlikely. If dictation was taken in shorthand, a more agentive form of writing, then Tertius played a more active role in the composition of Romans (Moss). Despite a tendency on the part of New Testament scholars to picture Tertius as a volunteer (Richards), tradition links him to the household of Phoebe. The fourteenth-century manuscript Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, grec 47, fol. 244 recto (GA 18) reads: “The letter to (the) Romans written through (dia) Tertius and sent through (dia) Phoebe from Corinth.” Tertius is a Latin number (Third) that was frequently used for enslaved persons (e.g. CIL 5.01832; CIL 11.2656; AE 1972, 714; EDR005253).[1] The use of Latin may suggest that he was a verna (a homeborn enslaved person). We should note that some Roman elites, particularly in Celtic circles, occasionally embraced numeral praenomina.[2] A seal ring found in the luxury villa at Oplontis, for example, was owned by the elite Lucius Crassius Tertius. Given that the Tertius of Romans was working in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and performing secretarial work for a lengthy text his identification as an enslaved or formerly enslaved person seems secure. Keywords: Christian; Corinth; Dictation; Literate Worker;  New Testament; Paul; Rome; Secretary; Shorthand Bibliography: Moss, Candida R. “The Secretary: Enslaved Workers, Stenography, and the Production of Early Christian Literature.” JTS 74.1 (2023): 20–56. Petersen, Hans. “The numeral praenomina of the Romans.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 93 (1962): 347–354. Richards, E. Randolph. The Secretary in the Letters of Paul. WUNT II/42. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991. ———Paul and First-Century Letter Writing. Secretaries, Composition and Collection. Westmont, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2004. Roller, Otto. Das Formular der paulinischen Briefe: Ein Beitrag zur Lehre vom antiken Briefe. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933. (14-23, 295-300) Solin, Heikki. Die stadtrömischen Sklavennamen: Ein Namenbuch I-III. Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei, Beiheft 2 (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1996), 1.152-3. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Tertius (Rom. 16:22).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.MONTH YEAR. Notes: 1. Heikki Solin, Die stadtrömischen Sklavennamen: Ein Namenbuch I-III. Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei, Beiheft 2 (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1996), 1.152-3. 2. Hans Petersen, “The numeral praenomina of the Romans,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 93 (1962): 347–354.

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: late second century (ca. 180 CE) Place: North Africa Language:  Latin Literary Genre: Martyrdom Account Title of Work: Acts of the Scilitan Martyrs Reference:  Ac. Scil Original Text: 1.Praesente bis et Claudiano consulibus, XVI kalendas augusta, Kartagine in secretario inpositis Sperato, Nartzalo et Cittino, Donata, Secunda, Vestia, Saturninus proconsul dixit: “Potestis indulgentiam domni nostri imperatoris promereri, si ad bonam mentem redeatis.” 2. Speratus dixit: “Numquam malefecimus, iniquitati nullam operam paebuimus; numquam malediximus, sed male accepti gratias egimus; propter quod imperatorem nostrum observamus.” 3. Saturninus proconsul dixit: “Et nos religiosi summus et simplex est religio nostra, et iuramus per genium domni nostri imperatoris, et pro salute eius suppplicamus, quod et uos quoque facere debetis.” 4. Speratus dixit: “Initianti tibi mala de sacris nostris aures non praebebo; sed potius iura per genium domni nostri imperatoris.” 6. Speratus dixit: “Ego imperium huius seculi non cognosco; sed magis illi deo seruio, quem nemo hominum vidit nec  videre his oculis potest. Futurum non feci; sed siquid emero teloneum reddo quia cognosco domnm meum, regem regum et imperatorem omnium gentium.” (Ac. Scil. 1–6) Saturninus proconsul dixit: “Quae sunt res in capsa uestra?” (Ac. Scil 12) English Translation: In the consulship of Praesens (for the second time) and Claudius, on the seventeenth of July, when Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Donata, Secunda and Vestia were brought to the governor’s  in Carthage. The proconsul Saturninus said, “You can acquire the indulgence of our lord the emperor, if you return to your senses.”  2. Speratus said, “We have never done harm, we have never given ourselves to wickedness. Never have we uttered a curse, but when abused, we have given thanks for we hold our emperor with honor.” 3. Saturninus the proconsul said, “We too are a religious people, and our religion is simple: we swear by the genius of our lord the emperor and we offer prayers for his health, which you should do as well.” 4. Speratus said, “If you listen calmly, I will tell you the mystery of simplicity.” 5. Saturninus said, “If you begin to malign our sacred rites, I will not listen to you. But instead, swear by the genius of our lord the emperor.” 6. Speratus said, “I do not recognize the authority of this world, but I rather serve that God whom no human being has seen, nor can see, with these eyes.  I have not stolen, and I pay tax on whatever I buy, since I recognize my lord, the emperor of kings and of all the nations.” (Ac. Scil. 1–6) The proconsul Saturninus said, “What is in your case?”  Speratus said, “The books and letters of Paul, a just man.” (Ac. Scil. 12) Text and Translation adapted from Éric Rebillard, Greek and Latin Narratives about the Ancient Martyrs (Oxford Early Christian Texts; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017). Commentary: Speratus was the leader of a group of Christians from Scili in Numidia (Tunisia) who were arrested, arraigned, and executed in 180 CE. The site of Scili is in the region of Simitthu in Tunisia in a part of Numidia that was included in proconsular North Africa. Speratus is listed first in the list of martyrs and is the most vocal member of the group. He acts as a spokesperson. Several studies by Ronald Syme have argued that names like Speratus and his fellow-martyr Donata are typical of low status enslaved and formerly enslaved workers in North Africa. Speratus carries with him a case (capsa) that was used to hold book rolls, suggesting that the literature he was carrying was produced in the scroll format. The use of scrolls is a detail of some consequence for the history of Gospel media (Larsen and Letteney; Elder). There has been considerable debate about whether or not the texts Speratus carried were Gospels and letters of Paul, or only letters of Paul. In either instance Speratus seems to be either the owner, custodian, or transporter (i.e. messenger) of these works. This, together with the format of his name may suggest that he was enslaved or formerly enslaved. Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Martyrdom Account; Messenger; North Africa Bibliography: Elder, Nicholas. Gospel Media. Reading, Writing and Circulating Jesus Traditions. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2024. Larsen, Matthew and  Mark Letteney. “Christians and the Codex: Generic Materiality and Early Gospel Traditions.” JECS 27.3 (2019): 383–415. Syme, Ronald. “‘Donatus’ and the Like.” Historia 28 (1978): 588–603. ———“Roman Papers III.” Ed. Anthony R. Birley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984): 1105–1119. How to Cite: Moss, Candida R. “Speratus.” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. URL.

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Corinth; Ephesus(?) Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: 1 Corinthians Reference: 1 Cor. 1:1-2 Original Text: Παῦλος κλητὸς ἀπόστολος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ διὰ θελήματος θεοῦ καὶ Σωσθένης ὁ ἀδελφὸς  τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ τοῦ θεοῦ τῇ οὔσῃ ἐν Κορίνθῳ … (NA28 1 Cor. 1:1-2) English Translation: Paul, called to be an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and our brother Sosthenes, To the church of God that is in Corinth… (NRSV 1 Cor 1:1-2) Commentary: Sosthenes is named at the beginning of 1 Corinthians as the co-author of the letter alongside Paul. Scholars have debated what Sosthenes’s function is in relation to the text—authorial contributor to the text, editor, messenger, or more. Sosthenes is a name less commonly-attested among enslaved persons than other New Testament literate workers, but does appear as the name of a formerly enslaved Roman (CIL 6 29681). If Sosthenes was an enslaved or formerly enslaved literate worker, further examination of 1 Corinthians might explore what his contribution(s) was to the composition, editing, dissemination, and interpretation of the letter among Corinthians. Additionally, scholars debate the relationship between the Sosthenes named in 1 Cor 1:1 to the figures of Sosthenes and Crispus named in Acts 18:5–17. The latter Sosthenes (and Crispus) are characterized as a head (or heads) of a Corinthian synagogue, leading to the question of whether Paul’s co-author is a familiar figure to the Corinthian Christian community. If these are the same figure, then we might consider how enslaved or formerly enslaved Jews in the first century CE functioned as prominent religious leaders in diasporic communities. Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; New Testament; Paul Bibliography: Bonar, Chance E. The Author in Early Christian Literature. Cambridge Elements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming. Hubbard, Moyer V. “Urban Uprising in the Roman World: The Social Setting of Sosthenes.” NTS 51 (2005): 416–428. Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. “Co-Authorship in the Corinthian Correspondence.” Revue biblique 100 (1993): 562–579. Myrou, Augustine. “Sosthenes: The Former Crispus(?).” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 44.1 (1999): 207–212. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E.. “Sosthenes (1 Cor. 1:1)” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR.

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: mid-first century CE Place: Thessalonica; Corinth(?) Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: 2 Corinthians; 1 Thessalonians; 2 Thessalonians Reference:  2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1 Original Text: ὁ τοῦ θεοῦ γὰρ υἱὸς Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς ὁ ἐν ὑμῖν δι’ ἡμῶν κηρυχθείς, δι’ ἐμοῦ καὶ Σιλουανοῦ καὶ Τιμοθέου, οὐκ ἐγένετο ναὶ καὶ οὒ ἀλλὰ ναὶ ἐν αὐτῷ γέγονεν. (NA28 2 Cor. 1:19) Παῦλος καὶ Σιλουανὸς καὶ Τιμόθεος τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ Θεσσαλονικέων ἐν θεῷ πατρὶ καὶ κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ, χάρις ὑμῖν καὶ εἰρήνη. (NA28 1 Thess 1:1) Παῦλος καὶ Σιλουανὸς καὶ Τιμόθεος τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ Θεσσαλονικέων ἐν θεῷ πατρὶ ἡμῶν καὶ κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ, (NA28 2 Thess 1:1) English Translation: For the Son of God, Jesus Christ, whom we proclaimed among you, Silvanus and Timothy and I, was not “Yes and No”; but in him it is always “Yes.” (2 Cor. 1:19) Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace to you and peace. (1 Thess 1:1) Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ (2 Thess 1:1) Commentary: Silvanus appears near or at the beginning of three letters attributed to Paul. In both 1 Thessalonians and 2 Thessalonians, he is listed as a co-author alongside Timothy and Paul. In 2 Corinthians, Paul and Timothy note that Silvanus was one of the main teachers present with them during their time among the Corinthian congregation. It is unclear if Silvanus’s presence in Corinth suggests that this was his hometown. Silvanus’s status as an enslaved or formerly enslaved person is unclear, given what little information Pauline epistles provide about him. Silvanus—a name meaning “of the woods” that is also used of a Roman forest deity—was a popular Latin name that was occasionally given to enslaved and formerly enslaved persons (e.g., CIL 2 3336; CIL 8 12607; CIL 9 219). It is unclear whether the Silvanus named here is meant to be the same Silvanus who functions as Peter’s literate worker in 1 Peter 5:12. To complicate matters further, scholars disagree on whether 2 Thessalonians is a letter that Paul composed or dictated; thus, the attribution of 2 Thessalonians to Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy may have been a forger’s attempt at mimicking the authorial attribution of 1 Thessalonians. Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; New Testament; Paul; Secretary Related Entries: Timothy; Silvanus (1 Pet 5:12) Bibliography: Bonar, Chance E. “Coauthorial Attribution in the Teachings of Silvanus (NHC VII,4).” Pages 127–150 in Authorial Fictions and Attributions in the Ancient Mediterranean. Edited by Chance E. Bonar and Julia D. Lindenlaub. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.Reihe. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2024. Richards, E. Randolph. “Silvanus Was Not Peter’s Secretary: Theological Bias in Interpreting διὰ Σιλουανοῦ …εγραψαιν 1 Peter 5:12.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43.3 (2000): 417–432. Sargent, Benjamin. “Chosen Through Sanctification (1 Pet 1,2 and 2 Thess 2,13): The Theology or Diction of Silvanus?” Biblica 94.1 (2013): 117–120. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E. “Silvanus (1 Pet. 5:12).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR

Role: Literate Worker Gender: Male Date: first-second century CE Place: Unknown; Rome Language:  Greek Literary Genre: Letter Title of Work: 1 Peter Reference:  1 Cor. 5:12 Original Text: Διὰ Σιλουανοῦ ὑμῖν τοῦ πιστοῦ ἀδελφοῦ, ὡς λογίζομαι, δι’ ὀλίγων ἔγραψα παρακαλῶν καὶ ἐπιμαρτυρῶν ταύτην εἶναι ἀληθῆ χάριν τοῦ θεοῦ εἰς ἣν στῆτε. (1 Pet 5:12) English Translation: Through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother, I have written this short letter to encourage you and to testify that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it. (1 Pet. 5:12) Commentary: Silvanus appears at the end of 1 Peter as a literate worker responsible for the composition of the letter, likely receiving dictation from the person who authored 1 Peter. Alongside Tertius (Rom 16:22), he is a rare example in the New Testament of an enslaved or formerly enslaved literate worker who is explicitly named and acknowledged for their role in the epistolary process. 1 Peter refers to Silvanus as a “faithful brother,” which suggests that he was understood to be a Jesus-follower. Silvanus’s status as an enslaved or formerly enslaved person is unclear, given what little information 1 Peter provides about him. Silvanus—a name meaning “of the woods” that is also used of a Roman forest deity—was a popular Latin name that was occasionally given to enslaved and formerly enslaved persons (e.g., CIL 2 3336; CIL 8 12607; CIL 9 219). It is unclear whether the Silvanus named here is meant to be the same Silvanus who functions as Paul’s co-author for 1 Thessalonians and 2 Thessalonians. To complicate matters further, it is very likely that Peter did not compose 1 Peter; thus, the attribution of the letter’s composition to a certain Silvanus may have been the writer’s attempt to connect their text to the Pauline epistolary tradition. Keywords: Christian; Literate Worker; Messenger; New Testament; Peter; Secretary Related Entries: Silvanus (1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1) Bibliography: Bonar, Chance E. “Coauthorial Attribution in the Teachings of Silvanus (NHC VII,4).” Pages 127–150 in Authorial Fictions and Attributions in the Ancient Mediterranean. Edited by Chance E. Bonar and Julia D. Lindenlaub. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.Reihe. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2024. Richards, E. Randolph. Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition and Collection. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2004. Richards, E. Randolph. “Silvanus Was Not Peter’s Secretary: Theological Bias in Interpreting Σιλουανοῦ . . . ἔγραψα in 1 Peter 5:12.” JETS 43.3 (2000): 417–432. How to Cite: Bonar, Chance E. “Silvanus (1 Pet. 5:12).” Ancient Enslaved Christians. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR